C. A. R. Bhadran

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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The Madras Forests have been under systematic forest management for now nearly a century. Most of the forests are State owned and a well organized State Forest Department, headed by a Chief Conservator of Forests, administers these forests. Correlated to climatic and edaphic variations, six distinct forest types are recognizable, viz., the tropical rains, moist deciduous, dry deciduous, dry thorn, littoral and coastal forests and high level temperate grass areas. Each type is worked silviculturally in the manner most suited to it. A feature worthy of special mention is the extensive plantations of teak (the oldest dates from 1846). The important timber output is in teak, rosewood, and hardwoods for general constructional and other uses, as also a number of broad leaved softwoods utilized in the plywood trade and the manufacture of matches. The State shares with Mysore State almost a world monopoly in the production of sandalwood. Large areas of the State's forests are utilized for meeting local needs for firewood and grazing. Natural resources in this respect are supplemented by plantations of casuarina in the plains and blue gum and wattle in the hills. The spike disease of sandal is a problem that has eluded solution for many years. The upgrading of secondary timber species by suitable treatment and seasoning awaits development, as also the improved utilization by medicinal plants and tan substances. In favourable localities the State's forests abound in a variety of wildlife, a typical locality in Mudumalai being maintained as a Game Sanctuary.

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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The general principles involved in the use of forestry means for improving degraded watersheds are explained. Besides restoration of vegetative cover by protective measures or by removing or restricting the causes of degrade, the importance of rehabilitation planting is emphasized. Giving due consideration to the degraded condition of the area, procedure is indicated for selection of species, of techniques of planting, of spacing, etc. - in order that maximum soil cover may result in the shortest time possible. All forestry operations in a watershed should be directed much more towards the control of rainfall and run-off to result in maximum sustained production of water and the control of soil erosion than towards the production of forest products or of financial returns.

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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C. A. R. Bhadran , D. C. Kaith

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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The paper traces the history and describes the features (a) of population progress, (b) of timber production and (c) of timber consumption trends. While reliable census data are scarcely available prior to the eighteenth century, even subsequent information regarding population statistics is very variable. However, Bennet's estimates are adopted, to indicate, how the world's population increased steadily but at a low rate till 1650 (the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Europe), and at an accelerated pace thereafter. In the last half century since 1900 as many persons were added to the world's population as in the previous nine centuries together! As things are at present, the world population will continue to increase at a high annual rate in the future also. The impact of man on forests began with his need to clear forests for habitation and agriculture, and his requirements for wood for fuel and timber for various uses. Production of and trade in timber began with community living. The advent of steel and new sources of power enabled timber to be cut and fashioned variously. Timber transport and marketing, for internal as well as external trade, have also responded to the improvements in communications and modes of transport. Wood production has thus been correlated to the resources, population and economic progress of each region. Current production though considerable and adequate for meeting current needs, includes a significant proportion of unrecorded production. With economic progress, this will tend to diminish (as most of it is derived from unregulated working of private forests) and greater dependence will have to be placed on recorded production only. In fact, this feature would be a measure of advancement of a country. All the same, timber production has progressed all the time towards making this essential raw material available to mankind in ever-increasing quantities, in greater diversity of form and in a variety of species. The timber supply position is intimately connected with the extent of forests. With progress in other human activities such as agriculture, the forests area has diminished in many countries to very low levels. In advanced countries, as a result of efforts over centuries, a balance between forest land and land for other uses may have been attained; but, forests still continue to lose ground in developing and backward countries. While early use of wood was probably mainly for fuel, increased use of fashioned wood and processed wood characterises every stage of human progress. The availability of and technical possibility of using substitutes (steel, cement etc.) could also influence the use of timber to a considerable extent. With economic progress, consumption of wood for fuel decreased rapidly; wood for constructional purposes is also tending to take a secondary place (at least in urban areas), but the use of wood in pulp, board and other industries has risen steeply in recent years. The lowering of firewood consumption in spite of increasing population can be attributed to the increased use of substitute fuels (oil, gas, electricity) and the ready utilisation of the wood thus released, in industry. In advanced countries, fuel-wood represents only 10-20% of all wood used; in less advanced countries it would be an equal quantity as other woods; but in areas with a predominantly rural economy, it may be even ten-fold. In a developing economy, population increases, as also the per capita consumption of timber. But under more advanced conditions, while there may be an over-all increase in wood consumption, the per capita use of wood tends to get reduced largely due to difficulties in finding of wood supplies and ready availa-bility of substitutes for many uses. In advanced countries like those of Europe, wood is in fact losing ground. The effect of population pressures on timber needs may be summarised:- 1. In the very early stages, population increases induce development of forest resources and has a beneficial effect on forests and forestry. 2. The effect of further population increases on timber needs may be graded under three groups: (i) advanced countries with an industrial economy and a rural population of only 15 to 40% of total population; (ii) less advanced countries with a semi-industrial economy and a rural population of 40 to 70% of total population; and (iii) countries with a predominantly rural economy. 3. Further increases of population lead to increased timber needs (a) directly in proportion to the increase in the number of persons and (b) as a result of economic progress and the consequent improved standards and conditions of living. 4. This could lead to demands for timber far in excess of resources, but for (a) adjustment by way of using substitutes for fuel as well as for other uses, (b) reallocation for different uses, e.g., considerable reduction in use as fuelwood and consequent release for industrial uses and (c) diminution in per capita consumption. 5. Modern trends in timber utilisation tend to replace solid wood by veneers and plywood, large dimension timber by small dimension stock, and timber by cellulose. In other words the trend is towards maximum utilisation and almost total avoidance of waste. The world's requirement of wood will, however, continue to increase because of the great upsurge in population and vast technical advances. 6. Pegging down population at any desired level is a human problem beset with numerous difficulties. In practice, measures to increase the output of the world's forests may be more readily adopted. Such measures would, however, call for changes in forest management and policy. Attention is first drawn to Paterson's approach for the assessment of potential productivity. He computes the gross increment (total annual possibility) now realised at only 54% of the potential productivity of the world's forests. Even in Germany (with its centuries of well-regulated forestry), 'hidden' resources are still being located. In a developing country like India, it is estimated that even if 1 % of the existing forests were to be developed to full productivity, the present annual output could be doubled. Even otherwise, improvements in existing measures could themselves help to increase forest yields considerably. Among short term measures are listed (i) exploitation of hitherto inaccessible forests (46% of total forest area); (ii) improved implementation of silvicultural operations (to avoid loss by damage from fire, insects etc; to effect thinnings and realise intermediate yields as silviculturally indicated; to adopt shorter rotations, consistent with changed nature of demand, etc.); (iii) undertaking fresh inventories, to lead to increased 'annual cut'; (iv) increased use of less known species (especially in view of the industrial need nowadays more for wood and cellulose than for quality timber); (v) improved forest and timber utilisation (to avoid waste in conversion and loss in transport; to develop new uses such as for plywood, pulp and boards instead of conventional uses for construction etc.); and (vi) reduction in fuelwood consumption (so as to release increased quantities for industrial uses). Long term measures emphasise in particular the role of fast grown exotics in increasing the forest potential. The paper concludes on the optimistic note that the world's population pressures can be adequately and squarely borne by its forests, provided a fresh orientation is given to forestry practices and a dynamic approach is adopted in order to secure (as completely as possible) the potential productivity of the forests and meanwhile, to realise the fullest permissible returns.

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T. Achaya , C. A. R. Bhadran

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The Madras forests include evergreen, moist deciduous, dry miscellaneous and dry sandal types besides the temperate region plantations of Eucalyptus and wattle. Bamboos have also received special attention. The progress of working plan prescriptions is traced in respect of each of these types, particularly with regard to the determination of growth, rate outturn, rotation and yield. The variations in prescriptions from one locality to another are also indicated. The collection of growth and stand data, mainly to provide basis for an over-all check or for control of removals under an area yield, has been characteristic of the efforts to ensure a sustained yield. The peculiar features of management of sandal forests and of bamboo areas are brought out. The adverse effects of World War II on yield regulation in the Madras State are listed. The conclusion is drawn that further work is necessary to regulate yield at least by equiproductive or 'reduced' areas.

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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C. A. R. Bhadran

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by affording spare-time or supplemental employment, also ready funds in times of need besides introducing additional money returns regularly. Forestry can also have a direct effect on national economy, by providing raw-material for industry, earning or saving foreign exchange and often inducing developments in other sectors. Where forest production can compete, forestry can even wrest land from other forms of land use. Even otherwise, any rational land-use policy must recognise that forestry has to prevail over a proportion of all land in view of the basic productive and protective function it performs. In assessing the objectives of forestry use for grazing, for wild life conservation and for recreation, the indirect benefits accruing to the people must be recognised as of far greater value than the direct (monetary) returns obtained by the forest administration. Such benefits include improved animal husbandry aesthetic values of forest scenery and forest life, improved health of the people, etc. The apparently incompatible elements between these objectives and those of production and protection can be harmonised by necessary re-adjustments and regulation. Forest influences on the environment (its climate, the conservation of soil and moisture, the regulation of stream-flow and water supply) are of paramount importance even if they are intangible. The perpetuation of such influences must remain a first objective of Forestry Use; and, forest management practices (for production of any kind) will, wherever so required: have to be re-adjusted accordingly. The claims of forestry will be greatly strengthened If a satisfactory method can be evolved for the evaluation of these intangible benefits. Forestry could even private investments where the objectives involve short-term production but in most other cases Forestry has to remain, by and large, a public undertaking; or, private forestry will require to be subsidised by the State. Investments even of public funds and setting apart land for forestry can be fully justified when various forestry-use objectives could be achieved in harmony from the same forestry undertaking. The problems likely to arise (in harmonising) would include - (1) quantitative evaluation of the relative importance of objectives (feasible targets), (2) assessment of the value (in economic terms) of indirect and of intangible benefits, (3) Needs. Of Research and experiment for improving techniques, and (4) revision of National forest policies and adoption of quantitative National plans for forest development.

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